Infection Control and Barrier Precautions

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Healthcare professionals have the responsibility to adhere to scientifically accepted principles and practices of infection control in all healthcare settings and to oversee and monitor those medical and ancillary personnel for whom the professional is responsible.

Introduction   

The healthcare industry is held accountable to keep patients safe with nursing having a pivotal role. Nurses must adhere to the guidelines set in place to ensure that care is aimed at infection prevention for both healthcare workers and patients. Modes and mechanisms of transmission of pathogenic organisms in the healthcare setting and strategies for prevention control are necessary. Use of engineering and work practice controls to reduce the opportunity for patient and healthcare worker exposure to potentially infectious material in all healthcare settings.  Creation and maintenance of a safe environment for patient care in all healthcare settings through application of infection control principles and practices for cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilization.

Element I

Healthcare professionals have the responsibility to adhere to scientifically accepted principles and practices of infection control in all healthcare settings and to oversee and monitor those medical and ancillary personnel for whom the professional is responsible.

Element I Objectives

At the conclusion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Recognize the benefit to patients and healthcare workers of adhering to scientifically accepted principles and practices of infection prevention and control. 
• Recognize the professional’s responsibility to adhere to scientifically accepted infection prevention and control practices in all healthcare settings and the consequences of failing to comply. 
• Recognize the professional’s responsibility to monitor infection prevention and control practices of those medical and ancillary personnel for whom he or she is responsible and intervene as necessary to assure compliance and safety. 

The healthcare industry is held accountable to keep patients safe with nursing having a pivotal role. Nurses must adhere to the guidelines set in place to ensure that care is aimed at infection prevention for both healthcare workers and patients.

Statements from Relevant Professional and National Organizations

As the largest healthcare workforce in the nation, nurses are able to positively affect the rates of infection at the bedside. The Center for Disease Control asserts the minimum accepted practice of preventing infection is with the use of Standard Precautions, with the number one action in prevention being proper hand washing (3). 

The American Nurses Association refers to similar basic tenets of infection prevention: thorough hand washing, staying home when ill, ensuring vaccinations are complete and up to date, using appropriate personal protective equipment, and covering face when coughing or sneezing (4). 

In 2017, the CDC, ANA, and 20 other professional nursing organizations collaborated to create the Nursing Infection Control Education (NICE) Network. This team effort is aimed at introducing clear obligations and competencies for nursing and all healthcare providers to stop the spread of microorganisms within health care systems. Within these cores is the responsibility of nursing as leaders within healthcare, “To be successful, infection prevention programs require visible and tangible support from all levels of the healthcare facility’s leadership” (5). 

Implications of Professional Conduct Standards

As healthcare professionals that participate in and supervise care of patients, nurses are responsible for being knowledgeable of the guidelines set by State and federal bodies. Several of these will be touched on throughout this course. 

The responsibility also applies to delegated activities. The nurse must ensure that the five rights of delegation are considered when assigning a task to unlicensed assistive personnel and that appropriate infection control policies and protocols are being followed appropriately. Always refer to facility policies and procedures to avoid potentially adverse outcomes. 

Failure to follow the accepted standards of infection prevention and control may have serious health consequences for patients, as well as healthcare workers. Hospital acquired infections (HAI) have improved by 16% from 2011 to 2015; however, the CDC reports that in 2015 there were still approximately 687,000 HAIs with 72,000 resulting in death (6). 

In cases of nurses observing incompetent care or unprofessional conduct in relation to infection control standards, the chain of command should first be utilized. Taking consideration into the type of misconduct, the improper infection control infraction should be addressed according to facility policy. Charge nurses and managers would be wise to first address the issue with the nurse involved to gather information and address any education deficits. 

In cases where clear misconduct is evident, the National Council of State Boards of Nursing provides advises, “A nurse’s practice and behavior is expected to be safe, competent, ethical and in compliance with applicable laws and rules. Any person who has knowledge of conduct by a licensed nurse that may violate a nursing law or rule, or related state or federal law may report the alleged violation to the board of nursing where the conduct occurred” (7). 

Consequences of failing to follow accepted standards of infection prevention and control may result in a complaint investigation from your various state of employments Professional Misconduct Enforcement Systems. Upon investigation, penalties include, but are not limited to, reprimand and censure, fines totaling thousands of dollars per violation, and probationary terms. 

Severe misconduct may result in the loss or revocation of a nursing license. As well, in cases where the neglect to follow appropriate conduct has resulted in harm to a patient or co-worker, there is potential for professional liability through a malpractice suit brought against the nurse.

Methods of Compliance

Nurses are responsible for being knowledgeable of the licensure and renewal CEs and targeted education in their state of practice. Refer to your specific state’s Board of Nursing for further guidance beyond the above-mentioned licensing requirements. 

Education of infection control best practice, complying with state requirements, and following the facility practices and policies will provide the best protection for self, patients, and staff in preventing and controlling infection during patient care.

Element II 

Modes and mechanisms of transmission of pathogenic organisms in the healthcare setting and strategies for prevention control.

Element II Objectives

Upon completion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Describe how pathogenic organisms are spread in healthcare settings 
• Identify the factors which influence the outcome of an exposure to pathogenic organisms in healthcare settings 
• List strategies for preventing transmission of pathogenic organisms 
• Describe how infection control concepts are applied in professional practice

Definitions

Pathogen or infectious agent:  A biological, physical, or chemical agent capable of causing disease. Biological agents may be bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, helminths, or prions. 

Portal of entry: The means by which an infectious agent enters the susceptible host. 

Portal of exit: The path by which an infectious agent leaves the reservoir. 

Reservoir: Place in which an infectious agent can survive but may or may not multiply or cause disease. Healthcare workers may be a reservoir for several nosocomial organisms spread in healthcare settings. 

Standard precautions: A group of infection prevention and control measures that combine the major features of Universal Precautions and Body Substance Isolation and are based on the principle that all blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions except sweat, non-intact skin, and mucous membranes may contain transmissible infectious agents. 

Susceptible host: A person or animal not possessing sufficient resistance to a particular infectious agent to prevent contracting infection or disease when exposed to the agent. 

Transmission: Any mechanism by which a pathogen is spread by a source or reservoir to a person. 

Common vehicle: Contaminated material, product, or substance that serves as a means of transmission of an infectious agent from a reservoir to one or more susceptible hosts through a suitable portal of entry. 

Overview of Components of the Infectious Disease Process

The infectious disease process follows a particular sequence of events that is commonly described as the “The Chain of Infection.” Nurses must have a solid understanding of this process in order to identify points in the chain where the spread of infection may be prevented or halted. The sequence involves six factors: pathogen, reservoir, portal of exit, portal of entry, mode of transmission, and a susceptible host. The cyclical and consistent nature of the chain provides ample opportunities to utilize scientific, evidence-based measures in combating infection spread. 

Pathogens within healthcare are widespread and plentiful, putting patients and healthcare workers at particular risk for contamination. The manifestation of symptoms and mode of transmission is varied depending upon the characteristic of the specific infectious agent. Healthcare workers are at a much higher risk for bloodborne pathogens such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus. Influenza, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Tuberculosis (TB) also poses a higher risk (1). Due to the immunocompromised systems of patients, these and many other pathogens cause a considerable risk and can result in HAIs such as Central Line-associated Bloodstream Infection (CLABSI), Catheter-associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTI), Surgical Site Infection (SSI), and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia (VAP) (1). 

Pathogens require a reservoir, which is typically a human or animal host; however, may also be from the environment, such as standing water or a surface. From the reservoir, the pathogen is spread via a mechanism such as body fluid, blood, and secretions. Common sites for contact within patient care include the respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts, as well as skin/mucous membranes, transplacental, or blood. From here, the mechanism must come into contact with another portal of entry. Transmission may occur through respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts, skin and/or mucous membranes, transplacental, and parenteral pathways. Some of these sites may have become compromised during patient care due to percutaneous injury, invasive procedures or devices, or surgical incisions. 

In order to acquire a pathogen, a mode of transmission must be provided. These can be from contact, transmission via a common vehicle, or vector borne. 

Contact with a pathogen may categorized as direct, indirect, droplet, or airborne. Contact transmission is through direct or indirect contact with a patient or objects that have been in contact with the patient. Pathogens related to this include Clostridium difficile and multi-drug resistant bacteria such as MRSA. Droplet transmission occurs when a pathogen can infect via droplets through the air by talking, sneezing, coughing, or breathing. The pathogen can travel three to six feet from the patient. Airborne transmission occurs when pathogens are 5 micrometers or smaller in size and are capable of being suspended in the air for long periods of time. These types of pathogens include tuberculosis, measles, chickenpox, disseminated herpes zoster, and anthrax (2). 

Transmission may also occur through a common vehicle which affects multiple hosts and can come from food, intravenous fluid, medication, biofilms, or equipment that is shared and often leads to widespread outbreaks. Vector borne pathogens are derived from a living vector such as mosquitoes, fleas, or ticks. 

The last factor in the chain of infection is a susceptible host with a mode of entry. This is the reason that patients are at a much higher risk for developing secondary infections while within the healthcare system.   

Factors Influencing the Outcome of Exposures

The human body provides several natural defenses against acquiring infection from a pathogen. The most prominent defense is the integumentary system and focus should be on maintaining skin integrity to prevent a mode of entry. Respiratory cilia function to move microbes and debris from airway. Gastric acid is at a pH that prevents the growth of many pathogens. Bodily secretions provide defense through flushing out and preventing back-flow of potential infectious agent colonization.  The normal flora also provides a layer of defense that must take care to not be compromised through use of antibiotics. Probiotics are commonly administered to patients on antibiotics to prevent a secondary infection due to the normal flora being disrupted (3). 

Host immunity is the secondary defense that utilizes the hosts own immune system to target invasive pathogens. There are four types of host immunity (all from 3): 

• Inflammatory response is pathogen detection by cells in a compromised area that then elicit an immune response that increases blood flow. This inflammatory response provides delivery of phagocytes or white blood cells to the infected site response. The phagocytes are designed to expunge bacteria. 
• Cell mediated immunity uses B-cells and T-cells, specialized phagocytes, are cytotoxic cells which target pathogens. 
• Humoral immunity is derived from serum antibodies produced by plasma cells. 
• Immune memory is the ability of the immune system to recognize previously encountered antigens of pathogens and effectively initiate a targeted response. 

Pathogen or Infection Agent Factors

For each type of infectious agent, there are specific factors that determine the risk to the host. Infectivity refers to the number of exposed individuals that become infected. Pathogenicity is the number of infected individuals that develop clinical symptoms and virulence is the mortality rate of those infected. The probability of an infectious agent to cause symptoms depends upon the size of inoculum (amount of exposure), and route and duration of exposure (4). 

The environment is another factor that warrants attention in limiting the probability of exposure in the healthcare setting. Fomites are materials, surfaces or objects which are capable of harboring or transmitting pathogens. These can be bedside tables, scrubs, gowns, bedding, faucets, and any other number of items that are in contact with patients and healthcare providers (7). 

Equipment is also a common means of spreading infection, especially portable medical equipment that can come into contact with numerous patients in a day. This can include vitals machines, IV pumps, wheelchairs, and computers on wheels, among numerous other care items frequently used. Care must be taken to ensure cleaning in between each patient use. For patient’s in isolation, dedicated equipment for that patient should remain in the room for the duration of stay. 

Methods to Prevent the Spread of Pathogenic Organisms in Healthcare Settings

Standard Precautions

Standard precautions are the minimal amount of caution and procedure applied to typical patient care. According to the CDC, standard precautions are to be used in all patient care areas with critical thinking applied to “. . . common sense practices and personal protective equipment use” (5).  The primary of these is proper hand hygiene to be exercised by healthcare providers, patients, and visitors. This will be covered in detail further along in the course. 

Standard precautions provide guidelines for respiratory hygiene and cough etiquette. The CDC recommends that the mouth and nose be covered with a tissue when coughing or sneezing, with appropriate disposal of the tissue in the nearest waste station. Hand hygiene is to be performed after any contact with any respiratory secretions or contact with potentially contaminated items (5). 

As mentioned, healthcare workers are at a higher risk for bloodborne infections due to handling of sharps. Approximately 385,000 needle sticks and sharps injuries are reported by healthcare workers in hospital settings each year (5). Standard precautions can be applied to ensure safe injection practices and will be further covered in Element III. 

Certain spinal procedures that access the epidural or subdural space provide a means of transmission for infection such as bacterial meningitis. The CDC states (all from 6): 

• Face masks should always be used when injecting material or inserting a catheter into the epidural or subdural space. 
• Aseptic technique and other safe injection practices (e.g., using a single-dose vial of medication or contrast solution for only one patient) should always be followed for all spinal injection procedures. 

For Patients Infected with Organisms other than Bloodborne Pathogens 

Special considerations must be given to patient populations that are infected with organisms other than bloodborne pathogens. During triage of a patient entering a facility, a thorough history should be obtained. This would include exposure to infectious agents, travel to certain countries in the world, and previous infections that are resistant to antibiotics (i.e., MRSA, VRE, or carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae). Patients that are identified with risk may be placed on the appropriate precautions in an isolation room. Infection prevention and the attending physician should be consulted immediately for further orders and treatment. 

Control of Routes of Transmission 

Controlling the routes of transmission is a key factor in preventing infection spread. Hand hygiene has been established as providing the primary prevention method. Care must be taken to follow guidelines for proper hand washing including: 

• Use antibacterial soap and water when hands are visibly soiled or when a Clostridium difficile infection is known or suspected. 
• Hands should be lathered ensuring all surfaces, between fingers, and under nails is covered and scrubbing should last at least 20 seconds. 
• Thoroughly rinse soap from hands with running water, pat dry with paper towel, and use paper towel to turn off faucet.
• Hand sanitizer that is at least 60% alcohol based may be used in between soap and water use. 
• A dime sized amount of hand sanitizer should be rubbed over surface of hands and fingers, then allowed to air dry. 

Barriers to proper hand hygiene include knowledge gaps and availability of appropriate supplies. Training programs to educate healthcare providers on proper hand washing should be accompanied with ongoing assessment and feedback to ensure that compliance is met. Incorporating hand hygiene into the professional development plan of each nurse is also recommended (7). Healthcare facilities should be diligent in ensuring that hand washing stations are located in convenient areas and that hand cleaning product is frequently monitored and refilled (7,8). Signage and educational materials may be posted in high traffic areas and at hand washing stations to encourage use by healthcare providers, patients, and visitors (7). 

Nurses and healthcare personnel must be aware of the potential of hand hygiene materials as being a potential source contamination or cross-contamination. Hand hygiene dispensers are touched frequently with contaminated hands and must be frequently cleaned. Follow manufacturers recommendations for cleaning. 

Hand hygiene systems that allow product to be refilled pose a risk of contaminating the contents. If refilling is a requirement, this should be accomplished using aseptic technique as much as possible. Facilities should avoid purchasing this type of product and move to pre-filled dispensing units, if possible (10). 

Use of Appropriate Barriers

Appropriate barriers are essential in keeping patients and healthcare providers safe from transmitting or contracting pathogens. The type of PPE chosen depends on certain variables such as the patient care being provided, standard precautions, and transmission-based precautions. The minimal amount of PPE recommended are as follows: 

• Contact precautions require gloves and gowns. If bodily secretions may be contacted, a mask and eye protection are required. 
• Droplet precautions require a surgical mask. 
• Airborne precautions require the wearing of gloves and a gown as well as an approved N95 respirator mask that has been fit tested for the individual wearing. Negative pressure rooms that are able to filter 6 to 12 air exchanges per hour are also recommended (1). 

Be mindful that these are the minimal recommendations based solely on the identified transmission status of the patient. Selection of PPE should be made using critical thinking to identify potential risks depending on type of patient care being performed, procedure, behavioral considerations, and other factors that may deviate from the standard. 

The following are current recommendations from the CDC for donning and doffing (all from 11).

How to Put On (Don) PPE Gear

More than one donning method may be acceptable. Training and practice using your healthcare facility’s procedure is critical. Below is one example of donning. 

1. Identify and gather the proper PPE to don. Ensure choice of gown size is correct (based on training). 
2. Perform hand hygiene using hand sanitizer. 
3. Put on isolation gown. Tie all the ties on the gown. Assistance may be needed by other healthcare personnel. 

Put on NIOSH-approved N95 filtering face-piece respirator or higher (use a facemask if a respirator is not available).

If the respirator has a nosepiece, it should be fitted to the nose with both hands, not bent or tented. Do not pinch the nosepiece with one hand. Respirator/facemask should be extended under chin. Both your mouth and nose should be protected. Do not wear respirator/facemask under your chin or store in scrubs pocket between patients. 

–Respirator: Respirator straps should be placed on crown of head (top strap) and base of neck (bottom strap). Perform a user seal check each time you put on the respirator.

–Facemask: Mask ties should be secured on crown of head (top tie) and base of neck (bottom tie). If mask has loops, hook them appropriately around your ears.

      5. Put on face shield or goggles.

When wearing an N95 respirator or half face-piece elastomeric respirator, select the proper eye protection to ensure that the respirator does not interfere with the correct positioning of the eye protection, and the eye protection does not affect the fit or seal of the respirator. Face shields provide full face coverage. Goggles also provide excellent protection for eyes, but fogging is common. 

   6. Put on gloves. Gloves should cover the cuff (wrist) of gown. 

   7. Healthcare personnel may now enter patient room. 

How to Take Off (Doff) PPE Gear

More than one doffing method may be acceptable. Training and practice using your healthcare facility’s procedure is critical. Below is one example of doffing. 

1. Remove gloves. Ensure glove removal does not cause additional contamination of hands. Gloves can be removed using more than one technique (e.g., glove-in-glove or bird beak). 
2. Remove gown. Untie all ties (or unsnap all buttons). Some gown ties can be broken rather than untied. Do so in gentle manner, avoiding a forceful movement. Reach up to the shoulders and carefully pull gown down and away from the body. Rolling the gown down is an acceptable approach. Dispose in trash receptacle. 
3. Healthcare personnel may now exit patient room. 
4. Perform hand hygiene. 
5. Remove face shield or goggles. Carefully remove face shield or goggles by grabbing the strap and pulling upwards and away from head. Do not touch the front of face shield or goggles.
6. Remove and discard respirator (or face mask if used instead of respirator). Do not touch the front of the respirator or face mask. 
   –Respirator: Remove the bottom strap by touching only the strap and bring it carefully over the head. Grasp the top strap and bring it carefully over the head, and then pull the respirator away from the face without touching the front of the respirator.
   –Face mask: Carefully untie (or unhook from the ears) and pull away from face without touching the front.
7. The final step is to perform hand hygiene after removing the respirator/face mask and before putting it on again if your workplace is practicing reuse.

Appropriate Isolation/Cohorting of Patients with Communicable Diseases

Cohorting patients is a common practice within facilities, especially with limited rooms and an increasing number of patients with MDROs (12). In order to combat these issues, placing patients with the same type of pathogen in one room, when single rooms are not available is an option. The minimal standard for all patients is standard precautions. 

The CDC offers guidance for appropriately isolating or cohorting patients based on the type of precaution. 

Contact: Patients with a known or suspected pathogen that is transmitted via contact should be placed in a private room, if available. Cohorting can be achieved if the cohorted patients share the same type of pathogen (13). 

Droplet: Unless a single patient room is not available, patients in droplet precautions should only be cohorted if neither have an excessive cough or sputum production. The cohorts should be tested to ensure they are infected with the same type of pathogen. Immunocompromised patients are at an increased risk and should not be cohorted. Patients are to be separated at least three feet apart and a privacy curtain should remain drawn between their respective areas. Care providers must don and doff new PPE in between providing care to each respective patient (13). 

Airborne: An airborne infection isolation room (AIIR) with negative air pressure that exchanges air at least six to 12 changes per hour is required. The door must remain closed except for entry and exit. Cohorting of patients is not recommended except in the case of outbreak or large number of exposed patients (13). In these instances, the CDC recommends the following (13):   

• Consult infection control professionals before patient placement to determine the safety of alternative room that do not mee engineering requiring for AIIR. 
• Place together (cohort) patients who are presumed to have the same infection (based on clinical presentation and diagnosis when known) in areas of the facility that are away from other patients, especially patients who are at increased risk for infection (e.g., immunocompromised patients). 
• Use temporary portable solutions (e.g., exhaust fan) to create a negative pressure environment in the converted area of the facility. Discharge air directly to the outside, away from people and air intakes, or direct all the air through HEPA filters before it is introduced to other air spaces. 

Host Support and Protection

Vaccinations to preventable disease are highly recommended by numerous health organizations such as the CDC, World Healthcare Organization, and the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. As state by Healthy People 2020, “. . . infectious diseases remain a major cause of illness, disability, and death. Immunization recommendations in the United States currently target 17 vaccine-preventable diseases across the lifespan” (14). As healthcare providers, nurses are in a position to review the patient’s history for gaps in appropriate vaccination coverage and offer education to the patient. Additionally, healthcare providers hold an ethical responsibility to maintain current on vaccinations and can prevent transmitting known communicable disease by receiving an influenza vaccination each year. 

Pre- and/or post-prophylaxis may be recommended during certain types of exposures or for patients at an increased risk for infection. This is commonly used for emergent or planned procedures and surgeries that access areas that are at higher risk for becoming a portal of entry, such as the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts. Antibiotics may be ordered when it is known that the sterile field has been broken during a procedure or there has been a concern of contamination of a wound or incision site. 

In cases of exposure to an infectious pathogen, the decision to treat includes factors such as the type of exposure, source patient’s symptoms, time frame since exposure, the health status of the individual exposed, as well of the risks and benefits of the treatment. Pre-prophylaxis may be considered in the prevention of HIV for high-risk individuals. 

Typically, after an exposure, the host’s blood is drawn to determine pathogen risk regardless if there is a known pathogen. Post-exposure prophylactics are given within a short time frame from the exposure based on results. The individual that is exposed will have baseline testing for HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C viral antibodies. Follow-up testing occurs six weeks, three months, and six months after initial exposure. 

Maintaining skin and immune system integrity is of the upmost importance to prevent the transmission of infectious pathogens. Nursing interventions to promote skin and immune system integrity are:   

• Perform a thorough skin assessment every shift and with changes in condition 
• Accurately document any wounds or incisions 
• Use gentle cleansers on skin and pat dry 
• Use moisturizers and barrier creams on dry or tender skin 
• Prevent pressure ulcer development by turning and repositioning patient every 2 hours 
• Maintain aseptic technique during wound care, dressing changes, IV manipulation or blood draws, and catheter care 
• Use neutropenic guidelines when providing care to immunocompromised patients 
• Encourage adequate nutritional and intake   

Environmental Control Measures

The cleaning, disinfection and sterilization of patient care equipment should be performed per the recommendations of the manufacturer. Cleaning should be performed between multiple patient use. For equipment that has been used in an isolation room, a terminal clean must be performed prior to being used in any other patient care. Additional information on this topic will be covered within Element V. 

Environmental cleaning personnel must be educated on the appropriate cleaning for all precaution patient environments. The Material Safety Data Sheets for all chemicals are to be available to all healthcare personnel for reference as to the proper use and storage. These should be referred to in order to ensure that the correct cleaning product is effective to terminally clean isolation rooms based on pathogen. 

Ventilation should be thoroughly managed and maintained by the environmental operations team. Negative pressure rooms should be consistently monitored, and alarms investigated to ensure proper air exchange. Concerns from nursing regarding ventilation issues should be directed to the environmental team for follow-up. 

Regulated medical waste (RMW) within the healthcare system that must follow state guidelines for disposal includes: 

• Human pathological waste 
• Human blood and blood products 
• Needles and syringes (sharps) 
• Microbiological materials (cultures and stocks) 
• Other infection waste (16) 

According to the CDC, “To ensure containment, RMW (except medical waste sharps) is required to be placed in plastic bags and then packaged in single use (e.g., corrugated boxes) or reusable rigid (e.g., plastic) or semi-rigid, leak proof containers before transport. Once packaged, RMW is either transported to a designated secure storage or collection area within the facility for third party pick-up, or to a generator’s on-site treatment facility” (15). 

Bodily fluid (urine, vomit, and feces) may be safely disposed of in any utility sink, drain, toilet, or hopper that drains into a septic tank or sanitary sewer system. Healthcare personnel must don appropriate PPE during disposal.

Element III

Use of engineering and work practice controls to reduce the opportunity for patient and healthcare worker exposure to potentially infectious material in all healthcare settings.

Element III Objectives

Upon completion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Define healthcare-associated disease transmission, engineering controls, safe injection practices, and work practice controls 
• Describe specific high-risk practices and procedures that increase the opportunity for healthcare worker and patient exposure to potentially infectious material 
• Describe specific measures to prevent transmission of blood-borne pathogens from patient to patient, healthcare worker to patient, and patient to healthcare worker via contaminated injection equipment 
• Identify work practice controls designed to eliminate the transmission of blood-borne pathogens during use of sharp instruments (e.g., scalpel blades and their holders (if not disposable), lancets, lancet platforms/pens, puncture devices, needles, syringes, injections) 
• Identify where engineering or work practice controls can be utilized to prevent patient exposure to blood-borne pathogens 

Definitions

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs): Infections associated with healthcare delivery in any setting (e.g., hospitals, long-term care facilities, ambulatory settings, home care). 

Engineering Controls: Controls (e.g., sharps disposal containers, self-sheathing needles, safer medical devices, such as sharps with engineered sharps injury protections and needleless systems) that isolate or remove the blood-borne pathogens hazard from the workplace. 

Injection safety (or safe injection practices): A set of measures taken to perform injections in an optimally safe manner for patients, healthcare personnel, and others. A safe injection does not harm the recipient, does not expose the provider to any avoidable risks and does not result in waste that is dangerous for the community. Injection safety includes practices intended to prevent transmission of blood-borne pathogens between one patient and another, or between a healthcare worker and a patient, and to prevent harms such as needlestick injuries. 

Single-use medication vial: A bottle of liquid medication that is given to a patient through a needle and syringe. Single-use vials contain only one dose of medication and should only be used once for one patient, using a new sterile needle and new sterile syringe. 

Multi-dose medication vial: bottle of liquid medication that contains more than one dose of medication and is often used by diabetic patients or for vaccinations. 

Work Practice Controls: Controls that reduce the likelihood of exposure to blood-borne pathogens by altering the way a task is performed (e.g., prohibiting recapping of needles by a two-handed technique). 

High-Risk Practices and Procedures Capable of Causing Healthcare Acquired Infection with Blood-borne Pathogens

Percutaneous exposures are a work hazard within the healthcare industry. There are approximately 5.6 million healthcare workers at risk, with nurses ranking number one. Studies have shown that needlestick injuries occur most frequently within a patient room or the operating room (1). 

Exposures can occur through not following safe practices. The following practices in handling contaminated needles and other sharp objects, including blades, can increase the risk for a percutaneous exposure and should be avoided.

• Manipulating contaminated needles and other sharp objects by hand (e.g., removing scalpel blades from holders, removing needles from syringes) 
• Delaying or improperly disposing (e.g., leaving contaminated needles or sharp objects on counters/workspaces or disposing in non-puncture-resistant receptacles) 
• Recapping contaminated needles and other sharp objects using a two-handed technique 
• Performing procedures where there is poor visualization, such as: 
  1. Blind suturing 
  2. Non-dominant hand opposing or next to a sharp 
  3. Performing procedures where bone spicules or metal fragments are produced
     

Mucous membrane/non-intact skin exposures occur with direct blood or body fluids contact with the eyes, nose, mouth, or other mucous membranes via the following.

• Contact with contaminated hands 
• Contact with open skin lesions/dermatitis 
• Splashes or sprays of blood or body fluids (e.g., during irrigation or suctioning)
  

Parenteral exposure is the subcutaneous, intramuscular, or intravenous contact with blood or other body fluid. Injection with infectious material may occur during the following scenerios.

• Administration of parenteral medication 
• Sharing of blood monitoring devices (e.g., glucometers, hemoglobinometers, lancets, lancet platforms/pens) 
• Infusion of contaminated blood products or fluids 
• Safe injection practices and procedures designed to prevent disease transmission from patient to patient and healthcare worker to patient
  

According to the CDC, unsafe injection practices have resulted in more than 50 outbreaks of infectious disease transmission since 2001.  As well, since that time over 150,000 patients were potentially exposed to HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus solely due to unsafe practice (2). These deviations from best practice have resulted in one or more of the following consequences.

• Transmission of blood-borne viruses, including hepatitis B and C viruses to patients 
• Notification of thousands of patients of possible exposure to blood-borne pathogens and recommendation that they be tested for hepatitis C virus, hepatitis B virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 
• Referral of providers to licensing boards for disciplinary action 
• Malpractice suits filed by patients
  

Pathogens including HCV, HBV, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can be present in sufficient quantities to produce infection in the absence of visible blood. 

• Bacteria and other microbes can be present without clouding or other visible evidence of contamination. 
• The absence of visible blood or signs of contamination in a used syringe, IV tubing, multi- or single-dose medication vial, or blood glucose monitoring device does NOT mean the item is free from potentially infectious agents. 
• All used injection supplies and materials are potentially contaminated and should be discarded.
  

Proper infection control technique requires that healthcare providers must follow best practice to prevent injury and pathogen transfer. At all times, aseptic technique is to be used to prepare and administer an injection. The following are best practice guidelines.

• Medications should be drawn up in a designated “clean” medication area that is not adjacent to areas where potentially contaminated items are placed. 
• Use a new sterile syringe and needle to draw up medications while preventing contact between the injection materials and the non-sterile environment. 
• Ensure proper hand hygiene (i.e., hand sanitizing or hand washing if hands are visibly soiled) before handling medications. 
• If a medication vial has already been opened, the rubber septum should be disinfected with alcohol prior to piercing it. 
• Never leave a needle or other device (e.g., “spikes”) inserted into a medication vial septum or IV bag/bottle for multiple uses. This provides a direct route for microorganisms to enter the vial and contaminate the fluid. 
• Medication vials should be discarded upon expiration or any time there are concerns regarding the sterility of the medication.
  

Never administer medications from the same syringe to more than one patient, even if the needle is changed. 

Never use the same syringe or needle to administer IV medications to more than one patient, even if the medication is administered into the IV tubing, regardless of the distance from the IV insertion site. 

• All the infusion components from the infusate to the patient’s catheter are a single interconnected unit. 
• All the components are directly or indirectly exposed to the patient’s blood and cannot be used for another patient. 
• Syringes and needles that intersect through any port in the IV system also become contaminated and cannot be used for another patient or used to re-enter a non-patient specific multidose medication vial. 
• Separation from the patient’s IV by distance, gravity and/or positive infusion pressure does not ensure that small amounts of blood are not present in these items. 
• Never enter a vial with a syringe or needle that has been used for a patient if the same medication vial might be used for another patient. 

Dedicate vials of medication to a single patient, whenever possible. 

• Medications packaged as single use must never be used for more than one patient: 
• Never combine leftover contents for later use 
• Medications packaged as multi-use should be assigned to a single patient whenever possible 
• Never use bags or bottles of intravenous solution as a common source of supply for more than one patient 
• Never use peripheral capillary blood monitoring devices packaged as single-patient use on more than one patient 
• Restrict use of peripheral capillary blood sampling devices to individual patients 
• Never reuse lancets. Use single-use lancets that permanently retract upon puncture whenever possible 

Safe injection practices and procedures designed to prevent disease transmission from patient to healthcare worker. Fact sheet from OHSA can be found at https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_BloodborneFacts/bbfact01.pdf

Evaluation or Surveillance of Exposure Incidents

A plan to evaluate and follow-up on exposure incidents should be put into place at every facility. At a minimum, this plan should include the following elements: 

1. Identification of who is at risk for exposure
2. Identification of what devices cause exposure 
3. Education for all healthcare employees that use sharps. This would include that ALL sharp devices can cause injury and disease transmission if not used and disposed properly. Specific focus would include the devices that are more likely to cause injury such as:  

• Devices with higher disease transmission risk (hollow bore)
• Devices with higher injury rates (“butterfly”-type IV catheters, devices with recoil action)
• Blood glucose monitoring devices (lancet platforms/pens)

1. Identification of areas/settings where exposures occur
2. Circumstances by which exposures occur
3. Post exposure management – See Element VI

Engineer Controls

Engineer controls are implemented in order to provide healthcare workers with the safest equipment to complete their jobs. Safer devices should be identified and integrated into safety protocols whenever possible. When selecting engineer controls to be aimed at preventing sharps injuries the following should be considered: 

1. Evaluate and select safer devices 
2. Passive vs. active safety features 
3. Mechanisms that provide continuous protection immediately 
4. Integrated safety equipment vs. accessory devices:  

• Properly educate and train all staff on safer devices 
• Consider eliminating traditional or non-safety alternatives whenever possible 
• Explore engineering controls available for specific areas/settings

    5. Use puncture-resistant containers for the disposal and transport of needles and other sharp objects:  

• Refer to published guidelines for the selection, evaluation, and use (e.g., placement) of sharps disposal containers 
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) guidelines –
  This is available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/bbp/#prevent  
  
• Use splatter shields on medical equipment associated with risk prone procedures (e.g., locking centrifuge lids) 

Work Practice Controls

General Practices

• Hand hygiene including the appropriate circumstances in which alcohol– based hand sanitizers and soap and water hand washing should be used (see Element II). 
• Proper procedures for cleaning of blood and body fluid spills: 
• Initial removal of bulk material followed by disinfection with an appropriate disinfectant. 
• Proper handling/disposal of blood and body fluids, including contaminated patient care items. 
• Proper selection, donning, doffing, and disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) as trained [see Element IV]. 
• Proper protection of work surfaces in direct proximity to patient procedure treatment area with appropriate barriers to prevent instruments from becoming contaminated with blood-borne pathogens. 

Preventing Percutaneous Exposures

1. Avoid unnecessary use of needles and other sharp objects. 
2. Use care in the handling and disposing of needles and other sharp objects:  

• Avoid recapping unless absolutely medically necessary. 
• When recapping, use only a one-hand technique or safety device. 
• Pass sharp instruments by use of designated “safe zones.” 
• Disassemble sharp equipment by use of forceps or other devices. 
• Discard used sharps into a puncture-resistant sharps container immediately after use. 

Modify Procedures to Avoid Injury

1. Use forceps, suture holders, or other instruments for suturing
2. Avoid holding tissue with fingers when suturing or cutting
3. Avoid leaving exposed sharps of any kind on patient procedure/treatment work surfaces
4. Appropriately use safety devices whenever available:  

• Always activate safety features. 
• Never circumvent safety features. 

Element IV

Creation and maintenance of a safe environment for patient care in all healthcare settings through application of infection control principles and practices for cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilization.

Element IV Objectives

Upon completion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Describe the circumstances that require the use of barriers and personal protective equipment to prevent patient or healthcare worker contact with potentially infectious material
• Identify specific barriers or personal protective equipment for patient and healthcare worker protection from exposure to potentially infectious material

Definitions

Personal protective equipment (PPE): Specialized clothing or equipment worn by an employee for protection against a hazard. 

Barriers: Equipment such as gloves, gowns, aprons, masks, or protective eye wear, which when worn, can reduce the risk of exposure of the health care worker’s skin or mucous membranes to potentially infective materials.

Types of PPEor Barriers and Criteria for Selection

Per OSHA guidelines, employers must provide employees with appropriate PPE that provides protection from any potential infectious pathogen exposure (1). PPE includes gloves, cover garb, masks, face shields and eye protection. All PPE is intended to provide a barrier between the healthcare worker and potential contamination, whether from a patient, object, or surface. 

Gloves are intended to provide coverage and protection for hands. There are several types of gloves to choose from and the type of patient care or activity should guide choice. 

• Sterile – to be utilized when performing sterile procedures and aseptic technique 
• Non-sterile – medical grade, non-sterile gloves may be used for general patient care and clean procedures (such as NG tube insertion) 
• Utility – not medical grade and should not be used in patient care
  

Choice in material made from glove often is dictated by cost and facility preference. When given a choice, considerations should be made as to the types of material being handled. 

• Natural rubber latex – rarely used in facilities due to allergen risk 
• Vinyl – made from PVC, lower in cost, provides protection in non-hazardous and low-infection environments 
• Nitrile – more durable, able to withstand chemical and bio-medical exposure (2) 

An appropriately sized glove fits securely to the fingertips and palm without tightness or extra room. If a glove develops a tear or is heavily soiled, it should be replaced immediately. 

Cover garb is a protective layer to wear over scrubs or clothes to protect garments and skin. These include laboratory coats, gowns, and aprons. As with gloves, consideration should be given to size, sterility, type of patient care involved, and material characteristics of the gown. 

• Fluid impervious – does not allow passage of fluids 
• Fluid resistant – resists penetration of fluids, but fluid may seep with pressure 
• Permeable – does not offer protection against fluids 

Masks are intended to provide protection to the wearers mouth and nose, with respirators providing an extra layer of protection to the respiratory tract against airborne infection pathogens (1).

Goggles are designed to protect the eyes from splashes and droplet exposure, while face shields offer additional protection to the entire face. It is important to note that face shields are not designed to be a replacement for masks. 

The choice of PPE is based on the factors that are reasonably anticipated to occur during the patient care encounter. Potential contact with blood or other potentially infectious material can occur via splashes, respiratory droplets, and/or airborne pathogens. The type of PPE chosen will be based on standard or transmission-based precaution recommendations. Follow your facility policy and procedures for guidance on appropriate choice. The nurse will also need to anticipate whether fluid will be encountered, such as emptying a drain or foley collection device. In situations where a large amount of fluid is likely to be encountered, it would be wise to choose a higher level of protection, such as an impermeable gown, if available, and to wear eye protection to ward off splashes. 

Choosing Barriers or PPE Based on Intended Need 

Barriers and PPE is aimed at keeping patients and healthcare providers safe. There are certain circumstances where specific PPE is selected based on patient care or circumstances. 

Patient Safety 

Barriers, PPE, and hand hygiene is aimed at keeping patients and healthcare providers safe. There are certain circumstances where specific PPE is selected based on patient care or circumstances. This includes, but is not limited to: 

Sterile Barriers for Invasive Procedures

During invasive procedures, such as inserting a central line or during a surgery, staff directly involved performing the procedure or surgery must maintain sterility. Appropriate sterile PPE will be selected based on the type of procedure and the patient will be draped in sterile fashion according to recommended guidelines.  

Both the patient and caregiver should wear a mask during central line changes, with the caregiver adhering to aseptic technique (1). Specific policies of the organization should be referred to on the selection and donning and doffing of sterile protective equipment during surgical procedures.   

Masks for Prevention of Exposure of Droplet Contamination

Patients in droplet precautions pose a significant risk to healthcare workers and visitors. The patient, as well as anyone inside the patient’s room, should wear a mask for the most effective prevention of transmission (1). The patient and patient’s family must be educated on the importance of adhering to these guidelines while visitation is appropriate. During transport of a patient under droplet precautions, the patient should wear a mask, placed over top of any oxygen delivery device, if needed.  

Employee Safety

Employees must ensure that they are evaluating the types of exposure that is likely to occur during patient care. Selection of PPE and appropriate barriers should consider the following: 

Barriers for Prevention of Contamination

Per the CDC, “use of PPE is recommended based on the anticipated exposure to blood, body fluids, secretions, or excretions” (3). The following are CDC guidelines based on the expected type of exposure or precaution; however, clinical judgement should be used based on the situation (all from 5): 

Standard precautions are to be used with any potential exposure to blood, mucous membranes, compromised skin, contaminated equipment or surfaces, and body fluids. Barriers may include gloves, gown, and eye and face protection. 

Employees must be judicious in identifying any precautions that are placed on a patient (ie. Contact, droplet, airborne) and following recommended PPE guidelines for protecting themselves and other patients.  

PPE should be donned prior to going into a patient room and doffed upon exit. PPE must never be worn in the halls or when going from one patient room to the next. All gloves must be changed in between use and hands washed or sanitized upon removal of gloves. 

Additionally, whenever possible, social distancing of 6 feet should occur within the work environment. When not possible, adherence to mask guidelines is sufficient.  

Masks for Prevention of Exposure to Communicable Disease

With the onset of Covid-19 across the globe, masks are an essential tool in preventing the transmission of communicable disease. At minimum, a medical mask is to be donned during all patient care. During procedures or surgery, surgical masks are to be utilized.  

N-95 masks are reserved for patient care with known or suspected Covid-19, if airborne precautions are ordered, or during procedures that may aerosolize (such as during intubations and certain endoscopy procedures). The CDC recommends reserving surgical N-95 masks for healthcare providers that “who are working in a sterile field or who may be exposed to high velocity splashes, sprays, or splatters of blood or body fluids”.  Standard N95 respirators are recommended for all other care involving confirmed or suspected Covid-19 patients (5).

Guidance on Proper Utilization of PPE or Barriers

Proper fit is required for PPE to be effective. Gowns and gloves chosen should fit well, allow movement, and neither be too baggy or too tight. For particulate respirators, the CDC recommends the following regarding proper fit and use of particulate respirators: 

All workers who are required to wear tight-fitting respirators (e.g., N95 respirators, Elastomerics) must have a medical evaluation to determine the worker’s ability to wear a respirator, and if medically cleared, a respirator fit test needs to be performed using the same model available in the workplace (3, 4). 

Prior to donning PPE, it should be inspected for any anomalies, tears, or vulnerable spots. PPE that is compromised should be disposed of and a new garment selected. Nurses must give careful consideration to the selection of PPE to ensure that it is the correct type for the job and anticipate any circumstances where splashes or saturation of fabric is likely to occur. 

The PPE provided by the employer may be single use or re-usable. Always verify with manufacturers guidelines and facility policy on the correct usage and processing of worn garments. It is the facilities responsibility to ensure that re-usable gowns are laundered according to State guidelines. 

In order to prevent cross contamination, OSHA offers the following guidelines: 

• Personal protective equipment must be removed prior to leaving a work area 
• Garment penetrated by blood or other potentially infectious material must be removed immediately or as soon as possible 
• PPE must be discarded in “. . . an appropriately designated area or container for storage, washing, decontamination, or disposal” 
• Employers must ensure that proper hand washing is taking place after the removal of PPE
  

Healthcare facilities have a legal duty to protect their workers. Per OSHA, “One way the employer can protect workers against exposure to blood-borne pathogens, such as hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes AIDS, is by providing and ensuring they use personal protective equipment, or PPE. Wearing appropriate PPE can significantly reduce risk, since it acts as a barrier against exposure. Employers are required to provide, clean, repair, and replace this equipment as needed, and at no cost to workers” (5). 

Employers and healthcare workers must understand the balance of cost versus benefit ratio in PPE selection and use. While it is important to be good stewards with resources, always erring on the side of caution and choosing PPE based on anticipated exposure risk is most effective way to protect yourself and your patients. 

For selection, donning, doffing, and disposal refer back to Element II.

Types of PPE or Barriers and Criteria for Selection

Per OSHA guidelines, employers must provide employees with appropriate PPE that provides protection from any potential infectious pathogen exposure (1). PPE includes gloves, cover garb, masks, face shields and eye protection. All PPE is intended to provide a barrier between the healthcare worker and potential contamination, whether from a patient, object, or surface. 

Gloves are intended to provide coverage and protection for hands. There are several types of gloves to choose from and the type of patient care or activity should guide choice. 

• Sterile – to be utilized when performing sterile procedures and aseptic technique 
• Non-sterile – medical grade, non-sterile gloves may be used for general patient care and clean procedures (such as NG tube insertion) 
• Utility – not medical grade and should not be used in patient care
  

Choice in material made from glove often is dictated by cost and facility preference. When given a choice, considerations should be made as to the types of material being handled. 

• Natural rubber latex – rarely used in facilities due to allergen risk 
• Vinyl – made from PVC, lower in cost, provides protection in non-hazardous and low-infection environments 
• Nitrile – more durable, able to withstand chemical and bio-medical exposure (2) 

An appropriately sized glove fits securely to the fingertips and palm without tightness or extra room. If a glove develops a tear or is heavily soiled, it should be replaced immediately. 

Cover garb is a protective layer to wear over scrubs or clothes to protect garments and skin. These include laboratory coats, gowns, and aprons. As with gloves, consideration should be given to size, sterility, type of patient care involved, and material characteristics of the gown. 

• Fluid impervious – does not allow passage of fluids 
• Fluid resistant – resists penetration of fluids, but fluid may seep with pressure 
• Permeable – does not offer protection against fluids 

Masks are intended to provide protection to the wearers mouth and nose, with respirators providing an extra layer of protection to the respiratory tract against airborne infection pathogens (1).

Goggles are designed to protect the eyes from splashes and droplet exposure, while face shields offer additional protection to the entire face. It is important to note that face shields are not designed to be a replacement for masks. 

The choice of PPE is based on the factors that are reasonably anticipated to occur during the patient care encounter. Potential contact with blood or other potentially infectious material can occur via splashes, respiratory droplets, and/or airborne pathogens. The type of PPE chosen will be based on standard or transmission-based precaution recommendations. Follow your facility policy and procedures for guidance on appropriate choice. The nurse will also need to anticipate whether fluid will be encountered, such as emptying a drain or foley collection device. In situations where a large amount of fluid is likely to be encountered, it would be wise to choose a higher level of protection, such as an impermeable gown, if available, and to wear eye protection to ward off splashes. 

Choosing Barriers or PPE Based on Intended Need 

Barriers and PPE is aimed at keeping patients and healthcare providers safe. There are certain circumstances where specific PPE is selected based on patient care or circumstances. 

Patient Safety 

Barriers, PPE, and hand hygiene is aimed at keeping patients and healthcare providers safe. There are certain circumstances where specific PPE is selected based on patient care or circumstances. This includes, but is not limited to: 

Sterile Barriers for Invasive Procedures

During invasive procedures, such as inserting a central line or during a surgery, staff directly involved performing the procedure or surgery must maintain sterility. Appropriate sterile PPE will be selected based on the type of procedure and the patient will be draped in sterile fashion according to recommended guidelines.  

Both the patient and caregiver should wear a mask during central line changes, with the caregiver adhering to aseptic technique (1). Specific policies of the organization should be referred to on the selection and donning and doffing of sterile protective equipment during surgical procedures.   

Masks for Prevention of Exposure of Droplet Contamination

Patients in droplet precautions pose a significant risk to healthcare workers and visitors. The patient, as well as anyone inside the patient’s room, should wear a mask for the most effective prevention of transmission (1). The patient and patient’s family must be educated on the importance of adhering to these guidelines while visitation is appropriate. During transport of a patient under droplet precautions, the patient should wear a mask, placed over top of any oxygen delivery device, if needed.

Employee Safety

Employees must ensure that they are evaluating the types of exposure that is likely to occur during patient care. Selection of PPE and appropriate barriers should consider the following: 

Barriers for Prevention of Contamination

Per the CDC, “use of PPE is recommended based on the anticipated exposure to blood, body fluids, secretions, or excretions” (3). The following are CDC guidelines based on the expected type of exposure or precaution; however, clinical judgement should be used based on the situation (all from 5): 

Standard precautions are to be used with any potential exposure to blood, mucous membranes, compromised skin, contaminated equipment or surfaces, and body fluids. Barriers may include gloves, gown, and eye and face protection. 

Employees must be judicious in identifying any precautions that are placed on a patient (ie. Contact, droplet, airborne) and following recommended PPE guidelines for protecting themselves and other patients.  

PPE should be donned prior to going into a patient room and doffed upon exit. PPE must never be worn in the halls or when going from one patient room to the next. All gloves must be changed in between use and hands washed or sanitized upon removal of gloves. 

Additionally, whenever possible, social distancing of 6 feet should occur within the work environment. When not possible, adherence to mask guidelines is sufficient.  

Masks for Prevention of Exposure to Communicable Disease

With the onset of Covid-19 across the globe, masks are an essential tool in preventing the transmission of communicable disease. At minimum, a medical mask is to be donned during all patient care. During procedures or surgery, surgical masks are to be utilized.  

N-95 masks are reserved for patient care with known or suspected Covid-19, if airborne precautions are ordered, or during procedures that may aerosolize (such as during intubations and certain endoscopy procedures). The CDC recommends reserving surgical N-95 masks for healthcare providers that “who are working in a sterile field or who may be exposed to high velocity splashes, sprays, or splatters of blood or body fluids”.  Standard N95 respirators are recommended for all other care involving confirmed or suspected Covid-19 patients (5).

Guidance on Proper Utilization of PPE/Barriers

Proper fit is required for PPE to be effective. Gowns and gloves chosen should fit well, allow movement, and neither be too baggy or too tight. For particulate respirators, the CDC recommends the following regarding proper fit and use of particulate respirators: 

All workers who are required to wear tight-fitting respirators (e.g., N95 respirators, Elastomerics) must have a medical evaluation to determine the worker’s ability to wear a respirator, and if medically cleared, a respirator fit test needs to be performed using the same model available in the workplace (3, 4). 

Prior to donning PPE, it should be inspected for any anomalies, tears, or vulnerable spots. PPE that is compromised should be disposed of and a new garment selected. Nurses must give careful consideration to the selection of PPE to ensure that it is the correct type for the job and anticipate any circumstances where splashes or saturation of fabric is likely to occur. 

The PPE provided by the employer may be single use or re-usable. Always verify with manufacturers guidelines and facility policy on the correct usage and processing of worn garments. It is the facilities responsibility to ensure that re-usable gowns are laundered according to State guidelines. 

In order to prevent cross contamination, OSHA offers the following guidelines: 

• Personal protective equipment must be removed prior to leaving a work area 
• Garment penetrated by blood or other potentially infectious material must be removed immediately or as soon as possible 
• PPE must be discarded in “. . . an appropriately designated area or container for storage, washing, decontamination, or disposal” 
• Employers must ensure that proper hand washing is taking place after the removal of PPE
  

Healthcare facilities have a legal duty to protect their workers. Per OSHA, “One way the employer can protect workers against exposure to blood-borne pathogens, such as hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes AIDS, is by providing and ensuring they use personal protective equipment, or PPE. Wearing appropriate PPE can significantly reduce risk, since it acts as a barrier against exposure. Employers are required to provide, clean, repair, and replace this equipment as needed, and at no cost to workers” (5). 

Employers and healthcare workers must understand the balance of cost versus benefit ratio in PPE selection and use. While it is important to be good stewards with resources, always erring on the side of caution and choosing PPE based on anticipated exposure risk is most effective way to protect yourself and your patients. 

For selection, donning, doffing, and disposal refer back to Element II.

Element V

Creation and maintenance of a safe environment for patient care in all healthcare settings through application of infection control principles and practices for cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilization.

Element V Objectives

At the conclusion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Define cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization 
• Differentiate between noncritical, semi critical, and critical medical devices 
• Describe the three levels of disinfection (i.e., low, intermediate, and high) 
• Recognize the importance of the correct application of reprocessing methods for assuring the safety and integrity of patient care equipment in preventing transmission of blood-borne pathogens 
• Recognize the professional’s responsibility for maintaining a safe patient care environment in all healthcare settings 
• Recognize strategies for, and importance of, effective and appropriate pre-cleaning, chemical disinfection, and sterilization of instruments and medical devices aimed at preventing transmission of blood-borne pathogens.

Definitions

Contamination: The presence of microorganisms on an item or surface. 

Cleaning: The process of removing all foreign material (i.e., dirt, body fluids, lubricants) from objects by using water and detergents or soaps and washing or scrubbing the object 

Critical device: An item that enters sterile tissue or the vascular system (e.g., intravenous catheters, needles for injections). These must be sterile prior to contact with tissue. 

Decontamination: The use of physical or chemical means to remove, inactivate, or destroy blood-borne pathogens on a surface or item to the point where they are no longer capable of transmitting infectious particles. 

Disinfection: The use of a chemical procedure that eliminates virtually all recognized pathogenic microorganisms but not necessarily all microbial forms (e.g., bacterial endospores) on inanimate objects. 

High level disinfection: Disinfection that kills all organisms, except high levels of bacterial spores, and is affected with a chemical germicide cleared for marketing as a sterilant by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 

Intermediate level disinfection: Disinfection that kills mycobacteria, most viruses, and bacteria with a chemical germicide registered as a “tuberculocide” by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 

Low level disinfection: Disinfection that kills some viruses and bacteria with a chemical germicide registered as a hospital disinfectant by the EPA. 

Noncritical device: An item that contacts intact skin but not mucous membranes (e.g., blood pressure cuffs, oximeters). It requires low level disinfection. 

Semi critical device: An item that comes in contact with mucous membranes or non-intact skin and minimally requires high level disinfection (e.g., oral thermometers, vaginal specula). 

Sterilization: The use of a physical or chemical procedure to destroy all microbial life, including highly resistant bacterial endospores. 

Universal Principles

Instruments, medical devices, and equipment should be managed and reprocessed according to the recommended and appropriate methods regardless of a patient’s diagnosis, except for cases of suspected prion disease. 

Due to the infective nature and steam resistant properties of prion diseases, special procedures are required for handling brain, spinal, or nerve tissue from patients with known or suspected prion disease (e.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease [CJD] or Bovine spongiform encephalopathy [BSE]). Consultation with infection control experts prior to performing procedures on such patients is warranted. 

Industry guidelines as well as equipment and chemical manufacturer recommendations should be used to develop and update reprocessing policies and procedures. Written instructions must be made available for each instrument, medical device, and equipment reprocessed. The CDC recommends that critical medical and surgical devices and instruments that would be expected to enter a system through which sterile body fluids, blood, or sterile tissue be sterilized prior to use on each patient. (1).   

Potential for Contamination

The type of instrument, medical device, equipment, or environmental surface cause variables that are more likely to be a source of contamination. External contamination may be caused by the presence of hinges, crevices, or multiple interconnecting pieces. If able, these devices should be disassembled. Endoscopes provide a particular challenge for both internal and external contamination, due to their lumens as well as the crevices and joints present. The disinfectant must reach all surfaces and assurance that there are no air pockets or bubbles to impede penetration (2). As well, these devices may be made of material that is not heat resistant, that prevents the ability to sterilize. In these instances, chemicals must be utilized to provide disinfection. 

Once rendered sterile, there are multiple opportunities for potential contamination due to the frequency of hand contact with the device or surface. Packaging may be over handled and breached, or the item may come into contact with potential contaminants via poor storage, improper opening, or environmental factors. 

The efficacy of sterilization and disinfection is dependent upon the number and type of microorganisms present. There are several types of pathogens that carry an innate resistance, making successful decontamination more challenging (2). Most infections are caused by bacteria, followed by viruses, fungi, protozoa, and prions (3).  Due to the natures of their outer membranes, spores and gram-negative bacteria have a natural barrier that prevents the absorption of disinfectants. Bacterial spores are especially resistant against chemical germicides, as are the following pathogenic organism types (all from 2): 

• Coccidia – i.e., Cryptosporidium 
• Mycobacteria – i.e., M. tuberculosis 
• Nonlipid or small viruses – i.e., poliovirus, coxsackievirus 
• Fungi – i.e., Aspergillus, Candida 
• Vegetative bacteria – i.e., Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas 
• Lipid or medium-size viruses – i.e., herpes, HIV 

The number of microorganisms that are present on a medical instrument, device or surface affects the time that must be factored into disinfection and sterilization efficacy. As stated by the CDC, “Reducing the number of microorganisms that must be inactivated through meticulous cleaning, increases the margin of safety when the germicide is used according to the labeling and shortens the exposure time required to kill the entire microbial load” (2) 

In general, used medical devices are contaminated with a relatively low bioburden of organisms. Inconsistencies or incorrect methods of reprocessing can easily lead to the potential for cross-contamination (1). 

Steps of Reprocessing

Reprocessing medical instruments and equipment is completed sequentially dependent upon the instrument and the process chosen. 

Pre-cleaning is the process of removing soil, debris, lubricants from internal and external surfaces through mopping, wiping, or soaking. It must be done as soon as possible after use to lower the number of microorganisms present on the object. 

Cleaning may be accomplished manually or mechanically. Manual cleaning relies upon friction and fluidics (fluids under pressure) to remove debris and soil from inner and outer surfaces of the instrument. There are several different machines used in mechanical cleaning including ultrasonic cleaners, washer-disinfectors, washer-sterilizers, and washer-decontaminators. Studies have shown that automated cleaning is more effective than manual; however, the frequency of fluid changes must follow manufacturers guidelines to eliminate the risk of contaminating debris (1). 

Disinfection involves the use of disinfectants, either alone or in combination, to reduce microbial count to near insignificant. Common disinfectants used in the healthcare setting include chlorine and chlorine compounds, hydrogen peroxide, alcohols, iodophors, and quaternary ammonium compounds, among others. These products are formulated and then approved by the Environmental Protection Agency and Food and Drug Administration for specific uses. 

Sterilization is used on most medical and surgical devices that are utilized in healthcare facilities. This requires sufficient exposure time to heat, chemicals, or gases to ensure that all microorganisms are destroyed.   

Choice/Level of Reprocessing Sequence

The choice or level of reprocessing is based on intended use: 

• Critical instruments and medical devices require sterilization 
• Semi critical instruments and medical devices minimally require high level disinfection 
• Noncritical instruments and medical devices minimally require cleaning and low-level disinfection.
  

Manufacturer’s recommendations must always be consulted to ensure that appropriate methods, actions, and solutions are used. There is a wide variability of compatibility among equipment components, materials, and chemicals used. Rigorous training is required to appropriately to understand the various equipment heat and pressure tolerance as well as the time and temperature requirements for reprocessing. Failure to follow manufacturer’s recommendations may lead to equipment damage, elevated microbial counts on instruments after reprocessing, increase risk for infections, and possibly patient death.   

Effectiveness of Reprocessing Instruments, Medical Devices, and Equipment

Pre-cleaning and cleaning prior to disinfection is one of the most effective ways to reduce the microbial count. This is only effective when completed prior to disinfection. Disinfection relies upon the action of products to eliminate microbial count. Depending on the medical instrument or device design, the product may only be required to cover the surface. However, due to the lumens of scopes, crevices, or hinges on certain instruments, immersion products and dwell times are required (4). 

The presence of organic matter, such as blood, serum, exudate, lubricant, or fecal material can drastically reduce the efficacy of a disinfectant. This may occur due to the presence or the organic material acting as a barrier.  It may also occur from a chemical reaction between the organic material and the disinfectant being utilized. 

Biofilms pose a particular challenge and offer protection from the action of disinfectants. Biofilms are composed of microbes that build adhesive layers onto the inner and outer surfaces of objects, including instruments and medical devices, rendering certain disinfectants ineffective. Chlorine and Monochloramines remain effective against inactivating biofilm bacteria (1). 

Per the CDC, “. . . a given product is designed for a specific purpose and is to be used in a certain manner. Therefore, users should read labels carefully to ensure the correct product is selected for the intended use and applied efficiently” (1). The label will indicate the sufficient contact time with chemical solution to achieve adequate disinfection. 

After disinfection, staff and management must adopt a system of record keeping and tracking of instrument usage and reprocessing. Reprocessing equipment must be on a schedule to be maintained and regularly cleaned, according to manufacturer’s guidelines. 

There are several methods of sterilization used such as steam sterilization (autoclaves), flash sterilization, and more recently, low-temperature sterilization techniques created for medical devices that are heat sensitive. Selection depends upon the type of instrument, material, ability to withstand heat or humidity, and targeted microbes. 

There are several methods of ensuring that sterilized instruments are processed and tracked appropriately. Indicators or monitors are test systems that provide a way of verifying that the sterilization methods were sufficient to eradicate the regulated number of microbes during the process. These safeguards include: 

• Biologic monitors 
• Process monitors (tape, indicator strips, etc.) 
• Physical monitors (pressure, temperature gauges) 
• Record keeping and recall/ tracking system for each sterilization processing batch/item 

Studies have shown that the best-practice of handling and storage of reprocessed medical equipment and instruments uses a system of event-related shelf life, rather than time-related. The rationale for this lies in the theory that the sterile items are remaining sterile as long as the packaging is not compromised (2). Factors that are considered event-related include internal or external contamination such as damage to packaging, humidity, insects, vermin, open shelving, temperature fluctuations, flooding, location, and the composition of packaging material 

Standards for handling must also focus on protection of workers from health issues.   

Recognizing Potential Sources of Cross-Contamination in the Healthcare Environment

• Surfaces or equipment which require cleaning between patient procedures/treatments 
• Practices that contribute to hand contamination and the potential for cross-contamination 
• Consequences of reuse of single use/disposable instruments, medical devices, or equipment   

Factors that Have Contributed to Contamination in Reported Cases of Disease Transmission

At any point in reprocessing or handling, breaks in infection control practices can compromise the integrity of instruments, medical devices, or equipment. Specific factors include: 

• Failure to reprocess or dispose of items between patients 
• Inadequate cleaning 
• Inadequate disinfection or sterilization 
• Contamination of disinfectant or rinse solutions 
• Improper packaging, storage, and handling 
• Inadequate/inaccurate record keeping of reprocessing requirements   

Expectations of Health Professionals Based on Setting and Scope of Practice

Professionals who practice in settings where handling, cleaning, and reprocessing equipment, instruments, or medical devices is performed elsewhere (e.g., in a dedicated Sterile Processing Department) are responsible to ensure understanding the core concepts and principles: 

• Standard and Universal Precautions (e.g., wearing of personal protective equipment) 
• Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization (Sections III and IV above) 
• Appropriate application of safe practices for handling instruments, medical devices, and equipment in professional practice 
• Designation and physical separation of patient care areas from cleaning and reprocessing areas is strongly recommended 
• Verify with those responsible for reprocessing what steps are necessary prior to submission of pre-cleaning and soaking
  

Professionals who have primary or supervisory responsibilities for equipment, instruments, or medical device reprocessing (e.g., Sterile Processing Department staff or clinics and physician practices where medical equipment is reprocessed on-site) are responsible for Understand core concepts and principles: 

• Standard and Universal Precaution 
• Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization described in Sections III and IV above 
• Appropriate application of safe practices for handling instruments, medical devices, and equipment in professional practice 
• Designation and physical separation of patient care areas from cleaning and reprocessing areas is strongly recommended
  

Facilities must be fastidious in developing appropriate reprocessing practices that follow regulatory guidelines. When selecting appropriate methods, consideration must be given to the antimicrobial efficacy, time constraints and requirement of these methods, as well as compatibility.  Compatibility among equipment/materials includes the corrosiveness, penetrability, leaching, disintegration, heat tolerance, and moisture sensitivity. 

The toxicity of the products used can pose occupational and environmental hazards to staff and patients. Facilities must adopt procedures and policies to reduce exposure to harmful substances, monitor for harmful exposures, and train staff using reprocessing cleaning and chemicals. To reduce potential exposure to harmful substances, OSHA mandates that training for workers prior to use include (all from 5): 

• Health and physical hazards of the cleaning chemicals 
• Proper handling, use, and storage of all cleaning chemicals being used, including dilution procedures when a cleaning product must be diluted before use 
• Proper procedures to follow when a spill occurs 
• Personal protective equipment required for using the cleaning product, such as gloves, safety goggles and respirators 
• How to obtain and use hazard information, including an explanation of labels and SDSs
  

Other considerations in developing a safety plan for appropriate reprocessing practices include: 

• Potential for patient toxicity/allergy 
• Residual effects including antibacterial residual and patient toxicity/allergy 
• Ease of use 
• Stability of products, including concentration, potency, efficacy of use, and effects of organic material 
• Odor 
• Cost 
• Monitoring requirements and regulations 
• Specific labeling requirements for reprocessing single-use devices (specific information may be obtained at https://www.fda.gov/media/71405/download) 

Element VI

Prevention and control of infections and communicable diseases in healthcare workers.

Element VI Objectives

At the conclusion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Recognize the role of occupational health strategies in protecting healthcare workers and patients 
• Recognize non-specific disease findings that should prompt evaluation of healthcare workers 
• Identify occupational health strategies for preventing transmission of blood-borne pathogens and other communicable diseases in healthcare workers 
• Identify resources for evaluation of healthcare workers infected with HIV, HBV, and/or HCV 

Definitions

Infectious Disease: A clinically manifest disease of humans or animals resulting from an infection. 

Communicable Disease: An illness due to a specific infectious agent or its toxic products that arises through transmission of that agent from an infected person, animal, or inanimate source to a susceptible host. 

Occupational Health Strategies: As applied to infection control, a set of activities intended to assess, prevent, and control infections and communicable diseases in healthcare workers.   

Pre-Placement and Periodic Health Assessments

Occupational health strategies are aimed at ensuring employees are healthy and keeping them healthy. Upon hiring, employees should undergo an initial health screening that reviews immunization records. The CDC suggests that healthcare workers are screened when newly hired and periodically ongoing to (all from 1): 

• Ensure sufficient immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases such as measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, hepatitis B, annual influenza and any other recommended or mandated requirements 
• Assess for and manage underlying conditions and illness that may affect workplace safety 
• Prevent, assess, and treat any potential infectious exposures or illness that may be acquired or transmitted within the healthcare setting 
• Initiate and continue personalized health counseling 
• Thorough history and physical   

A tuberculosis screening should be completed prior to new employee providing patient care and upon possible exposure for an existing employee.  A thorough assessment should include an evaluation of the following symptoms: 

• Fever 
• Cough 
• Chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing 
• Night sweats 
• Chills 

A Mantoux tuberculin skin testing (TST) must also be completed. The test is performed by injecting a small amount of tuberculin to the epidermis of the forearm. The test is then evaluated for a reaction in 48 to 72 hours. If there is no reaction, the test result is negative. If reactive, a scale is used to interpret the measurement of induration and to direct further testing or treatment (2). 

When working in healthcare, nursing staff must be healthy to provide optimal care. This is especially true with vulnerable patients that have weakened immune symptoms. The following symptoms require immediate evaluation by a licensed medical professional: 

• Fever 
• Cough 
• Rash 
• Vesicular lesions 
• Draining wounds 
• Vomiting 
• Diarrhea 

Upon evaluation, there may be restriction from patient care activities and work clearance must be completed prior to a return.   

Management Strategies for Potentially Communicable Conditions

Management and the Infection Prevention department should collaborate and strategize to ensure that employees that have had an exposure or possible exposure are protected and have support in seeking treatment without fear of retaliation or job loss (3). Managerial support should prioritize: 

• Appropriate evaluation and treatment 
• Limiting contact with susceptible patients and staff  
• placement in a non-clinical setting 
• Depending on severity of symptoms or potential transmission, a furlough until noninfectious may be necessary 

Specific Occupational Health Strategies for Prevention and Control of Blood-borne Pathogen Transmission 

Robust training and educational programs are essential for the prevention of healthcare worker exposure and transmission. Prevention strategies should include education, training, and availability of the following: 

• Information on potential agents such HBV, HCV, and HIV 
• HBV vaccination (including safety, efficacy, components, and recommendations for use) 
• Hand hygiene 
• Appropriate PPE and barrier precautions (see Element II) 
• Sharps safety (see Element III) 
• Standard and Universal Precautions 
• Education on the availability of confidential and anonymous testing for blood borne pathogens (4)   

Post-Exposure Evaluation and Management

Each facility must make a plan for post-exposure evaluation and management in the case that any employee or patient experiences a potential or actual blood borne exposure. The plan should incorporate the following: 

1. Prompt evaluation by licensed medical professional 
2. Risk assessment in occupational exposures 
3. Recommendations for approaching source patient and healthcare worker evaluations 
4. Recommendations for post-exposure prophylaxis emphasizing the most current CDC guidelines 
5. Post-exposure management of patients or other healthcare workers when the exposure source is a healthcare worker obligates the patient to be informed of the type of exposure, whether it is healthcare worker’s blood or other potentially infectious material. 

Airborne or droplet pathogen require several special considerations. The below guidelines should be applied appropriately.  

• Risk of exposure or illness 
• Testing 
• Options for and risks and benefits of post-exposure prophylaxis or treatment 
• Need for specialty care 
• Follow-up testing and treatment 
• Work restrictions, if indicated 
• Risk of transmitting infections to others and methods to prevent transmission, and 
• Signs and symptoms of illness to report after an exposure, including side effect of prophylaxis.   

Evaluation of Healthcare Workers Infected with HIV, HBV, HCV and/or other Blood-borne Pathogens

The CDC provides the following recommendations based on scientific evidence-based practice in relation policies to prevent infected health care personnel-related blood-borne pathogen transmission (3). 

• Strict adherence to Standard Precautions 
• Voluntary testing without fear of disclosure or discrimination 
• There is not mandatory screening of healthcare workers for blood-borne pathogens in every state. Such a program would cost millions of dollars and would not produce any appreciable gain in public safety. Negative antibody tests for HIV, HBV, and HCV do not rule out the presence of infection since it can take some time for measurable antibodies to appear.  

Criteria must be followed when evaluating infected health care workers for risk of transmission in order to adhere to laws protecting workers from discrimination and disability laws. The following outlines a general assessment to determine the risks posed: 

1. Nature and scope of professional practice 
2. Techniques used in performance of procedures that may pose a transmission risk to patients 
3. Assessed compliance with infection control standards 
4. Presence of weeping dermatitis, draining or open skin wounds 
5. Overall health:  

• Physical health – ability to carry out duties with Cognitive status 

Element VII

Sepsis Awareness and Education

Element VII Objectives

At the conclusion of course work or training on this element, the learner will be able to: 

• Describe the scope of the sepsis problem  
• Describe persons at increased risk of developing sepsis 
• Identify common sources of infection that may lead to sepsis 
• Describe early signs and symptoms that may be associated with sepsis in adults and children and infants 
• Understand the need for immediate medical evaluation and management if sepsis is suspected 
• Educate patients and families on methods for preventing infections and illnesses that can lead to sepsis and on identifying the signs and symptoms of severe infections and when to seek medical care   

Definitions

Sepsis: a life-threatening condition caused by a host’s extreme response to infection. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign 2016 International Guidelines define sepsis as life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. Earlier definitions defined sepsis as an inflammatory response to infection, while sepsis associated with organ dysfunction was identified as severe sepsis.

Septic shock: a subset of sepsis that manifests with circulatory and cellular/metabolic dysfunction; it is associated with a higher mortality risk.   

Sepsis – Scope of the Problem

Over 1.7 million Americans are diagnosed with sepsis each year, with the incidence rising by approximately 8% annually. Sepsis is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires early recognition and intervention. Sepsis occurs when the body overcompensates in response to an infection, resulting in multiple organ dysfunction and damage. Most sepsis cases are community-acquired. Early recognition and treatment are the most effective ways to combat sepsis. 

In 2013, New York State became the first in the U.S. to develop a state mandate that requires all hospitals to develop and adopt sepsis protocols. The mandate is dubbed “Rory’s Regulations,” after Rory Staunton, a 12-year-old boy whose death was attributed to lack of sepsis recognition. These protocols were required to adopt the following practices (all from 2): 

1. A process for the screening and early recognition of patients with sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock 
2. A process to identify and document individuals appropriate for treatment through severe sepsis protocols, including explicit criteria defining those patients who should be excluded from the protocols, such as patients with certain clinical conditions or who have elected palliative care 
3. Guidelines for hemodynamic support with explicit physiologic and biomarker treatment goals, methodology for invasive or non-invasive hemodynamic monitoring, and time frame goals 
4. For infants and children, guidelines for fluid resuscitation with explicit time frames for vascular access and fluid delivery consistent with current evidence-based guidelines for severe sepsis and septic shock with defined therapeutic goals for children 
5. A procedure for identification of infection source and delivery of early antibiotics with time frame goals 
6. Criteria for use, where appropriate, of an invasive protocol and for use of vasoactive agents 

Medical staff also gained responsibility for collection, use, and report quality measures and mortality data to peers, including national, hospital and expert stakeholders (2).   

Causes of Sepsis

As stated by the Sepsis Alliance, “Sepsis is the body’s overwhelming and life-threatening response to infection that can lead to tissue damage, organ failure, and death” (4). Bacterial infections commonly trigger sepsis, although other microbial infections (e.g., fungal, or viral) can also trigger sepsis.  The triggering infection most commonly originates from the lungs, urinary tract, skin, and/or gastrointestinal tract.  

Certain populations are at an increased risk of developing sepsis including: 

• The very young (under 1 year), and individuals 65 years of age and older 
• People with chronic conditions such as diabetes, lung disease, kidney disease, or cancer and 
• People with impaired immune systems   

Early Recognition of Sepsis

1. Manifestations of sepsis vary based on the type of infection and host factors 
2. Some people may have subtle sepsis presentations 
3. Signs and symptoms that may be associated with sepsis in persons with confirmed or suspected infection can include: 

• Altered mental state 
• Shortness of breath 
• Fever 
• Clammy or sweaty skin 
• Extreme pain or discomfort 
• High heart rate 

Signs and symptoms in children and the elderly may not present the same. In children and the elderly sepsis symptoms may present as above or any of the following: decreased temperature, pallor or bluish tone to skin, non-blanching rash, high respiratory rate, lethargy, and seizure. 

Sepsis can progress to more severe forms of sepsis, including septic shock. When septic shock occurs, the body’s inflammatory response causes extensive vasodilation throughout the body. This results in a sudden drop in blood pressure that can quickly lead to organ failure and damage (5). 

If a person presents with suspected or confirmed infection, healthcare professionals should assess for signs of, and risk factors for sepsis following facility sepsis protocols. 

Principles of Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis treatment starts with a prompt recognition and diagnosis. The diagnosis of sepsis starts with the assessment of a patient with a known or suspected infection. For adults, sepsis is defined as having two or more symptoms of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, which includes (all from 6): 

• Temperature (>38 o C or <36 o C) 
• Elevated heart rate > 90 bpm 
• WBC (<4×109/L or >12×109/L) 
• Respiratory rate (>20 breaths/min, PACO2<32 mm Hg 

Severe sepsis has traditionally been defined as having sepsis plus organ failure, while septic shock involved sepsis along with refractory hypotension after fluid resuscitation or requiring vasopressors to maintain hemodynamics (6). The standard changed in 2016 with the elimination of severe sepsis; however, most facilities still adhere to the above criteria. Follow sepsis protocol and bundles per facility. 

With recognition of sepsis and/or septic shock, previously state law mandated that one- and three-hour care bundles be created. While these may vary slightly per facility, Surviving Sepsis promotes a one-hour bundle that incorporates all the recommendations of the other bundles; yet, decreases the time to treat (all from 7):   

One Hour Bundle

1. Obtain lactate level. Reorder if initial lactate is > 2 mmol/L 
2. Obtain blood cultures prior to administering antibiotics 
3. Administer broad-spectrum antibiotics 
4. Rapidly infuse crystalloids at a rate of 30 mL/kg for hypotension or lactate ≥ 4 mmol/L 
5. If hypotensive post fluid resuscitation, administer vasopressors to maintain a mean arterial pressure ≥ 65 mmHg

In addition to blood cultures, type and screens may be ordered for urine, wound exudate, or respiratory secretions depending upon where the suspected infection is originating from. Blood tests may also include a complete blood count and basic metabolic panel to assess for any damage to the kidneys or liver. Other diagnostic imaging may include chest x-ray, CT, ultrasound, and MRI (8). 

Fluid resuscitation and vasopressors, if needed will continue until the patient is hemodynamically stable. Physicians should be notified when blood cultures result in order to ensure that the ordered antibiotic is effective against the identified organism (8). 

Patient Education and Prevention

Patient education should strive to provide memorable and simple ways to stay free of infection. The number one method of preventing infection is adequate hand hygiene. The CDC also suggests that patients keep wounds and cuts clean and covered until healed. 

Patients at higher risk should be notified of their risk factors, including (all from 9): 

• Adults 65 or older 
• People with chronic medical conditions, such as diabetes, lung disease, cancer, and kidney disease 
• People with weakened immune systems 
• Sepsis survivors 
• Children younger than one
  

Patients should be educated on warning signs and symptoms of sepsis that are easy to remember. The Sepsis Alliance suggests the following acronym and verbiage for seeking immediate care (all from 4): 

Patients should be encouraged to give relevant history and information to clinicians, including if they have had a recent infection, sepsis in the past, or are immunocompromised. 

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